Fig 1

Development of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries 54."

Fig 2

Development of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries 73. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 73, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 3

Average discharge potential and specific constants of some representative cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries."

Fig 4

(a) Schematic diagram of graphite microcrystal and lithium-ion intercalation into bulk graphite, (b) physical parameters in lithium-ion intercalation and de-intercalation process."

Fig 5

(a) TEM images, (b) cycling performances at 100 mA∙g−1 of SiOx/C-CVD 140; (c) corresponding third-cycle discharge capacity vs. Sn content (inset: the dependence of the Cfree content vs. Sn content) 143; (d) design of multifunctional SEI layer through mimicking human musculoskeletal tissues 145; (e) schematic diagrams illustrating microstructural changes in the SiOx-C/PZT composites anode during lithiation 141. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 145, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 6

(a) Schematic open-circuit energy diagram of an electrolyte, ΦA and ΦC are the anode and cathode work functions, Eg is the electrolyte s electrochemical stability window, μA and μC are the redox potential of the anode and cathode, respectively 4; (b) influence of SEI derived from local high concentration and low concentration DME based electrolyte on graphite properties 165; (c) Li+ solvation structure formula and model describing the structure of electrolyte quantitatively and graphically 167; (d) molecular interface model based on Li+ de-solvation process on graphite anode 169. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 4, Copyright © American Chemical Society. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 165, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 7

(a) Schematic diagram of the dissociation of lithium salts by (up) a FE polymer (e.g., PVDF) with a relatively low er and (down) an RFE polymer [e.g., P(VDF-TrFE)-based terpolymer] with a high εr 174; (b) schematic of the preparation of ultrathin ZnO layer coated LATP pellet by magnetron sputtering (up) and interface evolution between Li metal anode and LATP (middle) with and (down) without ultrathin ZnO layer 177; (c) variation of ionic conductivity of Li10Ge(P1−xSbx)2S12 with Sb content 179; (d) the influence of the value of x in LixScCl3+x on the structure and Li+ diffusivity, with increasing x value, higher Li+, lower vacancy concentration, and less blocking effects from Sc ions are achieved, enabling the ability to tune the Li+ migration 181; (e) illustration of water-mediated synthesis route for Li3InCl6 and the reversible interconversion between the hydrated a Li3InCl6∙xH2O and dehydrated Li3InCl6 182. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 179, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 181; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 182, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 8

(a) Commercial PP separator coated with microporous carbon material to suppress lithium polysulfide shuttle and improve battery electrochemical performance for lithium-sulfur batteries 214; (b) commercial PP separator modified by molecular sieve improve the cycling stability and safety of high-voltage lithium metal battery (LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2//Li) work under high temperature and elevated voltage 215; (c) in situ photopolymerization on the surface of a commercial separator generates a dense metal frame material, which significantly improves the stability of lithium metal batteries within carbonate electrolytes 195; (d) a novel fireproof separator based on triphenyl phosphate (TPP) "core" and polyvinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP) "shell" to improve the safety of secondary battery 217. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 215, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 9

Diagrammatic illustration of the free radical scavenging ability of (a) lignin and (b) PVDF 237; (c) schematic illustration of the working mechanism in LTMOCs antiaging binder 224. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 237, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 224, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 10

(a) Proposed Al(EtO)3/FEC reaction mechanism, schematic illustration of the protection mechanism of the SEI and CEI formed in basic electrolyte (b) and additive-modified electrolyte (c) 253; (d) Li deposition on a Li surface with or without CoPc additive 257. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 257, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 11

Diagrammatical illustration and properties of (a) metal foil, (b) porous 3D-structure, and (c) composite current collectors."

Fig 12

(a) Schematic diagram of repairing the NCM cathode by solid-state sintering with Li2CO3 285; (b) schematic diagram of hydrothermal repair of lithium iron phosphate cathode using LiOH aqueous solution and reducing agent 287; (c) schematic diagram of using deep eutectic solvent liquid phase reaction to repair cathode materials 288; (d) schematic diagram of remediation of NCM cathode materials using LiOH-LiNO3 molten salt system 289; (e) process for remediation of lithium cobalt oxide cathode materials by electrochemical lithiation using Li2SO4 solution 291. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 285, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 289, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 291; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 287, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 13

(a) Schematic diagram of porous graphite and lithium recovery process based on Li-containing SG; (b) cyclic properties of porous graphite and ordinary graphite at 1C; (c) schematic diagram of porous graphite recovery process and formation mechanism; (d) the hypothesis of activation mechanism and the corresponding chemical equation 297."

Fig 14

(a) Lattice expansion in SG revealed by digital optoelectronic technology, (b) TEM and (c) HRTEM images of SG processed by H2SO4 303; (d) SEM, (e) TEM images and (f) discharge/charge curves at different current densities and (g) cycling performance at 1000 mA∙g−1 of porous graphene 297. (a, b, c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 303, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 15

(a) Schematic diagram of MNO2-Ag adsorbing ions and (b) comparison of the removal rates of Pb2+, Cd2+ and AG+ by MNO2-Ag and AG 306; (c) schematic diagram of MG-MCMB complex preparation 307. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 306, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 307; Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 16

(a) Cycle performance of amorphous MoS3-on-rGO and crystal MoS2-on-rGO heterostructures for sodium ion batteries at 0.2 A∙g−1, (b) sodium storage performance comparison of amorphous MoS3-on-rGO heterostructure with different loadings 324; (c) schematic of the synthesis process of the SbSn nanoarrays 336; (d) molecular structure of disodium terephthalate (Na2C8H4O4) and the Na insertion/deinsertion mechanism 337. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 324, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 336, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 337; Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 17

(a) In situ XRD pattern and schematic diagram of O3-P3 phase transition of NaNi0.5Mn0.2Ti0.3O2348; (b) in situ XRD pattern of Na0.7Li0.03Mg0.03Ni0.27Mn0.6Ti0.07O2350; (c) rate performance test and cycle performance test of Na0.8Li0.2Fe0.2Mn0.6O2353; (d) crystal structures of Prussian Blue cathode materials 356; (e) crystal structure, typical charge-discharge curves and cycle performance tests of Na3V2(PO4)3364; (f) evolution of organic compounds for SIBs 367. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 348, (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 350, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 364; Copyright © Wiley. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 367, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 18

(a) Galvanostatic measurements of K0.6CoO2 cathode materials in K half-cell configurations 35; (b) schematic illustration of KVPF@3DC composite materials 382; (c) primary structural defect in a typical PBA is the vacancy (up to 33%) [R(CN)6], water is present within the structure in two distinct bonding environments 392; (d) structural evolution of K-MnHCFe: contour maps of operando XRD of K-MnHCFe during the first cycle in a K cell showing major diffraction peaks which were indexed using monoclinic (S. G. P21/n), cubic (S. G. Fm3m), and tetragonal (S. G. I4m2) phases 390; (e) working voltage, specific capacity and energy density of main cathode materials in PIBs (based on the mass of cathode only) 393. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 35, Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 382, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 392, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 393; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 390, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 19

(a) Various anode electrode materials in potassium ion batteries 37; (b) SEM and TEM images of the nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes 403; (c) XRD patterns of the Sn electrode in the half battery after the first cycle of charge and discharge 408; (d) structures of the COF-10 and CoF-10@CNT 420. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 37, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 420; Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 20

Comparison of several promising cathode materials, including intercalation voltage (V), practical gravimetric (Wh∙kg−1), volumetric (Wh∙L−1) energy densities, barrier for bulk Mg mobility (eV), cycling stability (number of cycles), and abundance of the transition metal used in the cathode in the earth's crust 422."

Fig 21

Evaluation of performance of several electrolyte for Mg batteries 422."

Fig 22

Optimization strategy of high-performance anode for aqueous rechargeable zinc batteries. (a) Schematic illustration of the Zn plating process with different coating layers 448; (b) schematic diagram of the deposition process of Zn ions in the Zn@ZnO-3D anode in comparison with the bare Zn anode and the structure of the bilayer near the anode and the corresponding activation energy potential 449; (c) illustration of recharging Ni-Zn (conventional powder Zn anodes) vs. Ni-3D Zn batteries 450; (d) schematic illustration of the suppressed hydrogen evolution side reactions in Zn-Sn alloy electrode 454. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 449, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 450, Copyright © The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 454, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 23

Specific capacity, working voltage and energy density of common cathode materials in zinc ion battery 475. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 475, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 24

(a) Polyhedral structure of manganese oxide crystal structure, a. β-MnO2 (pyrolusite-type); b. R-MnO2(ramsdellite-type); c. γ-MnO2 (nsutite-type); d. α-MnO2 (hollandite-type); e. romanechite-type MnO2; f. todorokite-type MnO2; g. δ-MnO2 (birnessite-type); h. λ-MnO2 (spinel-type) 455; (b) schematic diagram of phase transition of Zn2+ embedment in α-MnO2 460; (c) schematic diagram of co-embedding mechanism of H+ and Zn2+ in Zn/MnO2 batteries 461. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 455, Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 460, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 461, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 25

(a) Schematic diagram of crystal structure of original VOG, VOG after charging to 1.3 V and VOG after discharging to 0.2 V 470; (b) schematic diagram of Zn2+ migration in the cathode 471; (c) schematic diagram of working principle of Zinc ‖ LVO-250 battery 472. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 470, Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 471, Copyright © Elsevier. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 472, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 26

Research progress on reversible deposition of calcium in different electrolyte systems. (a) 1.5 mol∙L−1 Ca(BH4)2 in THF electrolyte at room temperature 488; (b) 0.25 mol∙L−1 Ca[B(HFIP)4]2 in DME electrolyte at room temperature 489; (c) 0.4 mol∙L−1 Ca(BH4)2 and 0.4 mol∙L−1 LiBH4 in THF electrolyte at room temperature 493."

Fig 27

Schematic diagram of the shuttle reaction of polysulfide 548. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 548, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 28

Major factors limiting the development of room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries 579. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 579, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 29

(a) Electrochemical reactions of the K-S battery, and schematic diagram of the electrode reactions 611; (b) charge/discharge voltage profiles of the composite 613; (c) schematic diagram of K-ACM composite and galvanostatic cycling test of symmetric cells at 2 mA∙cm−2, with the 1 mAh∙cm−2 stripping/plating capacity 615; (d) synthesis pathway of the Se@NO-nanocage/CNT composite, (e) cycling performance of the Se@NO-nanocage/CNT composite 620. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 611, (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 613; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 615, (d, e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 620; Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 30

(a) The discharge curve of a Li–O2 cell using FGS (C/O = 14) as the air electrode (PO2 = 2 atm) 643; (b) schematic illustration of the roles of solid catalysts in reducing the charging overpotential for Li2O2 oxidation 653; (c) working principle of RMs in Li-O2 batteries; (d) schematics of reactions on discharge with DBBQ as the RM 658; (e) structure and working principle of RFLOB and the photo of the working RFLOB 659; (f) voltage and power density vs. current density curves of RFLOB cells under different operating conditions 660. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 643, (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 653; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 660, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 31

(a) Physicochemical properties of the solvent and additive (such as donor/acceptor numbers (DN/AN), Li+ cation-anion association strength) that can help promote a solution-mediated discharge process 644; (b) solvent stability against proton/hydrogen abstraction via nucleophilic attack and solvent ability to facilitate the solution mediated discharge 706; (c) the schematic illustration of the MMM based on CAU1-NH2@PDA (PDA = polydopamine) and polymethyl methacrylate polymer for rebelling H2O and CO2 molecules, symbol: Al, pink; O, red; C, gray; H, blue 707. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 706, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 32

(a) Schematic diagram of Na-O2 battery 722; (b) the discharge-charge curves of Na-O2 battery based on NaO2 discharge product 723; (c) the discharge-charge curves of Na-O2 battery containing Na2O2 discharge product 724; (d) discharge capacity of Na-O2 battery in different electrolyte solvents 732. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 724, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 33

(a) Discharge-charge curve of the K-O2 battery 735; (b) XRD patterns of cathodes after discharge and charge in K-O2 batteries 735; (c) discharge-charge curve of the K-O2 battery standing for different times after discharge 744; (d) Discharge-charge curves of BpK-O2 batteries in different atmospheres 746. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 735, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 746; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 744, Copyright © Wiley."

Table 1

Comparison of theoretical cell voltage, negative specific capacity, theoretical mass specific energy and rechargeability of different metal-oxygen batteries."

Fig 34

(a) Schematic illustration and future applications of FMABs 809; (b) a simplified timeline diagram of the development of FMABs, LOB/NOB means Li/Na-O2 battery, which is tested in the pure O2 atmosphere, AAB: A-air batteries; LAB: Li-air batteries; MgAB: Mg-air batteries; ZAB: Zn-air batteries 810; (c) protection strategies for flexible metal anodes 815; (d) schematic diagram of several common preparation methods for flexible air cathodes 810."

Fig 35

Key problems of lithium iodine battery and corresponding solutions."

Fig 36

(a) The intercalation potentials of some electrode materials that used in aqueous lithium-ion batteries and the potential of hydrogen evolution reaction, oxygen evolution reaction with different pH values 883; (b) solvation structure of Li+ in dilute aqueous solution and high-concentrated aqueous solution 870; (c) the electrochemical stability window of aqueous electrolyte extended by high-concentrated salt, where upper is the redox potential of t anode and cathode materials, and lower part is the electrochemical stability window of water and high-concentrated aqueous electrolyte at pH = 7 884; (d) performance of aqueous Li-ion batteries based on various electrochemical couples. Color code for cycling stability: red, < 100 cycles; blue, 100 to 200 cycles; green, > 1000 cycles 870. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 883, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 884; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (b, d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 870, Copyright © The American Association for the Advancement of Science."

Fig 37

(a) DSC heating curves of fully sodiated hard carbon in various electrolyte formulations 889; (b) comparison of components and properties of SEI derived from ether and ester electrolytes 906; (c) the initial five GCD curves of LHC//NVPF full cells in NDD-3 electrolyte at 0.05 A∙g−1 894; (d) TG analysis of the NaTFSI-based electrolytes under N2 flux heating 905. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 889, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 906, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 894; Copyright © Wiley. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 905, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 38

(a) Comparison of ion radius and Stokes radius of Li+, Na+ and K+ 908; (b) solvation structure of K+ in dilute aqueous solution and high-concentrated aqueous solution 915; (c) comparison of electrochemical stability windows between aqueous dilute solution and high-concentrated solution (CH3CO2K) 914; (d) redox potential and specific capacity of APIBs electrode materials 911. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 908, Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 915, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 914; (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 911; Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Table 2

The main research battery performance and state."

Fig 39

(a) Schematic illustrations of Zn plating/stripping in aqueous electrolytes; (b) schematic illustration of a possible mechanism of how the Zn2+-EG solvation interaction impacts the chemistry of the hybrid electrolyte 951; (c) scheme of Zn2+ solvation structure and zinc surface passivation 952; (d) molarity of the ZnCl2-H2O binary system as functions of the weight ratio of ZnCl2 to H2O and the molar ratio of H2O to ZnCl2 (n), the prospective hydration shells around Zn are shown as inset, the term "water-in-salt" denotes electrolyte with salt to water weight ratio > 1 953; (e) snapshot of MD simulations 957; (f) the evolution process of the Zn2+-solvation sheath in electrolytes with the increased water content 958. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 951, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 952, Copyright © American Chemical Society. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 953, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 957, (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 958; Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 40

a) The performance of different types of the photo-assisted rechargeable metal batteries with or without light 966; (b) proposed reaction mechanisms of photoinvolved Li-O2 batteries 967; (c) schematic illustration of the Ag/Bi2MoO6 photocathode for Li-O2 battery 979. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 966, (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 979; Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 967, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 41

Overview of the constituents, categories and application fields of flexible batteries."

Fig 42

(a) The schematic representation of FIB in discharging process; (b) ionic conductivities of some fluoride ion conductors. "bm" stands for "after ball milled" 1038; (c) solvation structure and Stokes radius of Np1F and Np2F in BTFE 1031; (d) structural changes of La2NiO4.13 before and after fluorination 1037. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1038, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1031, Copyright © The American Association for the Advancement of Science."

Fig 43

(a) Schematic illustration of the chloride ion battery, (b) schematic illustration of the whole chemical and electrochemical processes of the FeOCl material 1043; (c) structural representation of CoFe-LDH at different charge states 1047; (d) ionic conductivities of PEO solid electrolytes with various SN addition 1056. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1043, Copyright © American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1047, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1056; Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 44

Working mechanism of a dual-graphite DIBs."

Fig 45

Considerations for electrolyte systems in DIBs 1092. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1092, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 46

Redox reaction scheme and representative cyclic voltammograms of three types of electroactive organics: n-type, p-type and bipolar type 1118. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1118, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 47

Common organic electrode materials for secondary batteries."

Fig 48

(a) Schematic illustration of a Li-CO2 battery 1169; (b) schematic illustration of corresponding CO2 reduction and evolution reactions on Co/GO electrode 1161; (c) schematic illustration of the charging and discharging reaction mechanism with the Ru catalyst 1154; (d) schematic illustration the preparation procedure of the CC@MoN NFs as cathodes for flexible belt-shaped Li-CO2 battery and reaction mechanism 1168. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1169, Copyright © American Chemical Society. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1161, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1168; Copyright © Wiley. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1154, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 49

(a) Cryo-EM and (b) high-resolution cryo-EM images of the SEI structures in the presence of nitrate, (c) schematic illustration of the area marked with orange square in (b) 1197; (d) cryo-EM and (e) high-resolution cryo-EM images of WGC after low areal capacity Li metal deposition, (f) schematic illustration of SEI nanostructure on the surface of WGC 1189; (g) schematic illustration of cryo-TEM, (h) Cryo-EM image and (i) high-resolution cryo-EM image and the corresponding FFT patterns for the selected regions of the electrochemically deposited Li metal (EDLi) 1190. (d, e, f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1189, (g, h, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1190; Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 50

Schematic diagram of the application of in situ TEM characterization technology in secondary rechargeable lithium batteries 1201–1205. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1201–1202, 1204; Copyright © American Chemical Society, © Wiley, © Oxford University Press."

Fig 51

Schematic diagram of a typical system for in situ TEM studies of secondary rechargeable metal batteries. In situ observations of solid-solid reactions, solid-gas reactions, and solid-liquid reactions of electrode materials/solid electrolytes can be made, including open and closed (gas or liquid cell) designs 1206."

Fig 52

(a) In situ TEM image of a single Cu/Si/Ge nanowire (Cu/Si/Ge NW) electrode with the evolution of Li-imbedding time; (b) chemo-mechanical simulation image: showing the gradual bending process and only in the lithium I stage of Ge; The cross-sectional distribution of normalized Li/Ge concentration in Si/Ge co-lithiation II stage; (c) in situ TEM images of amplified morphology changes of a single Cu/Si/Ge NW electrode at different lithium embedding stages and corresponding quantitative measurements of Si/Ge NW double-shell thickness changes with lithium embedding time; (d) electrochemicalmechanical coupling expansion diagram related to the insertion of active lithium near the surface during Si/Ge NW co-embedding 1208. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1208, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."

Fig 53

(a) In situ TEM images of pore filling and silicon skeleton expansion during different lithium embedding stages of AMPSi/C; (b) schematic diagram of the morphology change of a single AMPSi/C electrode during lithium inlay/removal and in situ TEM images of its morphology change before, after and after lithium inlay; (c) schematic diagram of AMPSi/C overall electrode structure changes during lithium embedding and in situ TEM images of single AMPSi/C electrode morphology changes during different lithium embedding stages 1209."

Fig 54

The process of lithium plating and lithium removal studied by in situ TEM using liquid cell 1217. (a) Schematic diagram of sealed battery design. Of the two chips used, three Pt conducting electrodes are deposited on the larger chip. (b) The distribution of electrostatic field in the chip area when the in situ battery is charged and discharged at a constant current of 0.1 mA∙cm−2 is obtained by finite element calculation and simulation using ANSYS Maxwell software. Specifically, three of the electrodes are the working, reference, and counter electrodes, which are abbreviated to WE, RE and CE, respectively. (c), (d) and (e) show the high Angle annular dark field (HAADF) photos of lithium deposition at the interface between Pt working electrode and LiPF6/PC electrolyte during the first, second and third charging, respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1217, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 55

(a) In situ XRD patterns of LiFePO4 at different charge-discharge rates 1224; (b) in situ ND patterns of Li1+xMn2−xO4 cathodes with different Li/Mn ratios for Li-ion batteries 1227; (c) in situ NDP spectra of LFP electrodes cycled at 0.1C, (c1) Geometry 1: small particles (70 nm) at the current collector side, large particles (140 nm) at the electrolyte side, Left: Li-ion distribution after charge/discharge for 5 h. Right: Li-ion distribution evolution during a full charge-discharge cycle, (c2) Geometry 2: large particles (140 nm) at the current collector side, small particles (70 nm) at the electrolyte side, Left: Li-ion distribution after charge/discharge for 5 h, Right: Li-ion distribution evolution during a full charge-discharge cycle 1230; (d) SLD profiles of Si, (d1) first lithiation, (d2) first delithiation, (d3) second lithiation/delithiation as a function of time and distance from the interface 1232; (e) in situ NMR spectra of 7Li, (e1) a-SiO and (e2) d-SiO (1000 ℃) 1234. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1224, Copyright © The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1227, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1232, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1234; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1230, Copyright © Wiley."

Fig 56

(a) In situ Raman characterizations of graphite upon potassium ion intercalation/deintercalation, (a1) Nearest layer model illustrated according to charge distribution in stage 3-KC36 and calculated by electron charge difference, (a2) Raman spectrum of the K-GICs at different stages, (a3) R value plots obtained with in situ Raman mappings to reveal the chemical phase evolution of K-GICs upon potassiation/depotassiation 1239; (b) in situ Raman mapping images of LiCo2O4 cross-section 1240; (c) in situ FTIR spectra of (c1) graphite, (c2) GO-1, (c3) GO-3, (c4) GO-5 1247; (d) in situ UV-Vis spectra of lithium-sulfur batteries upon charge-discharge processes 1250. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1239, (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1250; Copyright © Wiley. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1240, Copyright © The Electrochemical Society of Japan."

Fig 57

(a) Systematic diagram of in situ XPS, Co 2p XPS peaks and the evolution of Co surface as a function of applied voltages 1253; (b) in situ AES mapping images of solid state electrolyte Li2S-P2S5 SEI, (b1) after charging 2 h and (b2) its corresponding threshold-filter processed image, (b3) after charging 6 h, (b4) after charging 15 h 1255; (c) in situ STEM-EDS analysis of sodiation in α-MnO2 1256; (d) gas evolution analysis of NCM-811ǀǀAG pouch cell in 1 mol∙L−1 LiPF6/EC: EMC electrolyte under various applied voltages 1258. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1253, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 58

(a) Various synchrotron X-ray techniques used to study battery materials; (b) in situ synchrotron XRD pattern of the Li2S@graphene electrode during the initial charge-discharge process 1264; (c) synchrotron XPS of the LCO particle intensity map of energy range encompassing Li 1s and Co 3p and narrow scan of Li 1s and Co 3p at different locations on the particle 1269; (d) the 3D volume rendering of the Li|Li symmetrical cell after internal short-circuit obtained by synchrotron X-CT 1270. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1270, Copyright © American Chemical Society."

Fig 59

(a) Basic types and applications of magnetometry 1283; (b) magnetometry about material structure and composition analysis 1299, 1305, 1306; (c) diagram of operando magnetometry 1283, 1301; (d) operando magnetometry for real-time electron transfer dynamic monitoring 1302; (e) application of operando magnetometry in different ion batteries 1300. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1305-1306, (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1300; Copyright © American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1301, Copyright © Royal Society of Chemistry."