Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. ›› 2025, Vol. 41 ›› Issue (10): 100120.doi: 10.1016/j.actphy.2025.100120
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Catalysts for electrocatalytic dechlorination of chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons: synthetic strategies, applications, and challenges
Qi Wang1,2, Yuqing Liu1, Jiefei Wang1, Yuan-Yuan Ma1,*(
), Jing Du1,*(), Zhan-Gang Han1,*()
- 1 Hebei Technology Innovation Center for Energy Conversion Materials and Devices, Hebei Engineering Research Center of Thin Film Solar Cell Materials and Devices, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Chemistry Education, Testing and Analysis Center, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, Hebei Province, China
2 College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xingtai University, Xingtai 054001, Hebei Province, China
-
Received:2025-04-16Revised:2025-05-25Accepted:2025-06-11Published:2025-09-29 -
Contact:Email: mayy334@hebtu.edu.cn (Yuan-Yuan Ma)duj622@hebtu.edu.cn (Jing Du)hanzg116@hebtu.edu.cn (Zhan-Gang Han) -
Supported by:the National Natural Science Foundation of China(22471056); the National Natural Science Foundation of China(22301058); the National Natural Science Foundation of China(22371065); the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province(B2024205033); the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province(B2024205007); the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province(B2022205005); the Science and Technology Project of Hebei Education Department(QN2023049); the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation funded project(2021TQ0095); the Project of Science and Technology Department of Hebei Province(22567622H); the Science Foundation of Hebei Normal University(L2023B51); the Chemistry Postdoctoral Research Station at Hebei Normal University
Cite this article
Qi Wang, Yuqing Liu, Jiefei Wang, Yuan-Yuan Ma, Jing Du, Zhan-Gang Han. Catalysts for electrocatalytic dechlorination of chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons: synthetic strategies, applications, and challenges[J]. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2025, 41(10), 100120. doi: 10.1016/j.actphy.2025.100120
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Fig 1
Schematic representation of diverse design strategies for EHDC catalysts."
Fig 2
Schematic diagram of various supports."
Fig 3
(a) TEM image depicting C-Pd NPs; (b) TEM test for C-Pd NPs after AA treatment; (c) the activity of C-Pd towards EHDC was evaluated at varying cathode potentials (−0.65 to −1.10 V) in a nitrogen-saturated 50 mmol·L−1 Na2SO4 solution containing 2, 4-DCP (50 mg·L−1); (d) schematic representation of the potential-dependent mechanism for 2, 4-DCP EHDC [28]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society."
Fig 4
(a) TEM images depicting the Pd composites on carbon black; (b) TEM test result of C-Pd NPs following AA treatment; (c) schematic illustration depicting the pH-mediated competition between EHDC and HER over Pd NPs [4]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier."
Fig 5
TEM analysis for (a) Pd/MWCNTs-B, (b) Pd/MWCNTs-E and (c) Pd/MWCNTs-H; (d) Schematic representation of indirect electrochemical reduction mechanism of 4-CP; (e) Comparative EHDC performance of 4-CP with various catalysts [51]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier."
Fig 6
(a) Diagrammatic depiction of the Pd/PCN-08 preparation procedure; (b–e) TEM images of Pd/PCN-08, Pd/PCN-04, Pd/PCN-12 and Pd/PCN-16; (f–i) Histograms representing the corresponding particle diameter distributions of Pd/PCN-08, Pd/PCN-04, Pd/PCN-12, and Pd/PCN-16; (j) Corresponding phenol production catalyzed by various Pd/PCN electrodes; (k) TOFs and CEs of different Pd/PCN catalysts [30]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier."
Fig 7
(a) Schematic representation of the EHDC process utilizing P-Pd@MX/CC catalyst; (b–c) TEM and HR-TEM images of P-Pd@MX/CC electrode; (d) DCF degradation (the inset is the TON per Pd atom basis) of Pd@MX/CC and P-Pd@MX/CC electrodes; (e) Fitting curves of pseudo-first-order kinetics for Pd@MX/CC and P-Pd@MX/CC cathodes [52]. Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society."
Fig 8
(a) SEM analysis of Pd/Ni foam; (b) EDX analysis of Pd/Ni foam; (c) The pseudo-first-order fitting curves of Pd/Ni foam under different current [5]; Copyright 2007 Elsevier. (d) SEM micrographs of Pd/Ni (5000×) and (e) Pd/Ni (1000×); (f) The EHDC removal rate of monochlorophenols with Pd/foam-Ni [60]. Copyright 2007 MDPI."
Fig 9
(a, b) SEM images of Pd/Ni and Pd-NiMOF/Ni (the insets are the TEM micrographs of Pd/Ni and Pd-NiMOF/Ni; (c–e) CVs acquired for the Pd-NiMOF/Ni, Pd/Ni, and NiMOF/Ni cathodes under various initial applied voltages; (f) The concentration changes over time of 2, 4-D, o-PA, p-PA, and PA at Pd-NiMOF/Ni under a potential of −2.0 V [64]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier."
Fig 10
High-resolution XPS analysis of (a) Ni 2p, (b) Ru 3p and (c) Pd 3d of Pd-NiRu-MOF/NF; (d) The DFT analysis of EHDC mechanism on Pd-NiRu-MOF/NF; (e) EHDC activity tests of Pd-NiRu-MOF/NF under different applied voltages [65]. Copyright 2023 Elsevier"
Fig 11
(a) Illustration of preparation of Pd@CoFeV-LDH/NF materials; (b) TEM images of Pd@CoFeV-LDH/NF electrodes; (c) Diagrammatic depiction of electrons transfer between CoFeV-LDH/NF and Pd active sites; (d) Time-course EHDC performances of Pd@CoFeV-LDH/NF and control samples [44]; Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (e) Schematic description of EHDC process for Pd/Ni67Al33-LDH-OHV. (f) Pd 3d XPS spectra for Pd/NixAl100−x-LDH-OHV (x = 52, 67, 74, 79 and 100); (g) Gibbs free energy analysis for H2O activation at OHV and OHV regeneration on Ni(OH)2, Ni(OH)2-OHV, Ni15Al1-LDH-OHV, and Ni14Al2-LDH-OHV; (h) EHDC of 2, 4-DCP with Pd/Ni67Al33-LDH-OHV and control samples [50]. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society"
Fig 12
(a) Schematic representation of the fabrication procedure (NixFe1−x)P-Pd cathode; (b) Computation of the free energy associated with H* formation, Ni2P and NiFeP. (c) Energy profiles and reaction structures for 4-CP removal at Pd sites on NiFeP-Pd and Ni2P-Pd; (d) EHDC performance on NiFeP-Pd catalysts with various Fe loading [45]; Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (e) SEM image of Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF; (f) High-resolution XPS spectra of Pd 3d in Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF; (g) CVs of Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF and Pd/NF in 50 mmol·L−1 Na2SO4 solution saturated with N2; (h) Temporal profiles of 2, 4-DPC and its products, along with carbon mass balance, on Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF [69]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier."
Fig 13
(a) The process of EHDC on Pd/Fe-NiO/NF; (b) The intermediates substance and final products in the removal of 2, 4-D; (c) Durability tests for Pd/Fe-NiO/NF [54]; Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (d) LSV of Pd-Co3O4/Ni and control samples; (e) Nyquist analysis of Pd-Co3O4/Ni and control samples; (f) Temporal profiles of 2, 4-D concentrations using Pd-Co3O4/Ni and control samples; (g) Current efficiencies versus dechlorination time for Pd-Co3O4/Ni and control samples [71]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier."
Fig 14
(a1) The three-dimensional side view of isosurfaces showing the charge density difference (Δρ) in TiN-Pd4; (a2) Pd 3d XPS spectra of C-Pd and TiN-Pd; (a3 and a4) d-PDOS) for surface Pd atoms in C-Pd and TiN-Pd; (b1–b3) DFT analyses on the adsorption configurations and energies of 2, 4-DCP, P and HCl on C-Pd; (b4–b6) DFT analyses on the adsorption configurations and energies of 2, 4-DCP, P and HCl on TiN-Pd. (c) Plotting C/C0 versus reaction time for EHDC on TiN-Pd and control samples; (d) TOFs for C-Pd and TiN-Pd at a continuous potential; (e) CE values of TiN-Pd and control samples during EHDC process [16]. Copyright 2022 Royal Society of Chemistry."
Fig 15
(a) Illustration of the synthesis process for Pd NPs loaded on 2D Co-MNSs; (b) Computed charge density difference in the Pd/Co-MNSs electrode; (c) Planar average potential on the surfaces of Pd and Co-MNSs; (d) Illustration of how the Pd/Co-MNSs heterostructure influences the electron density of Pd; (e) kobs of CAP removal by Pd/Co-MNSs and reported electrodes [76]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier."
Fig 16
(a) The illustration schematic of EHDC catalyzed by C-Ag32Pd68; (b) Mechanism of EHDC for 2, 4-DCP on AgPd electrodes; (c) Illustration of Ag's role in EHDC on AgPd NPs; (d) Optimized adsorption structures (side view) and binding strength of 2, 4-DCP and (e) P; (f) Mass activity of C-AgPd electrodes [24]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society."
Fig 17
(a) Pd K-edge XANES of Pd foil and Pd7Au3 ANs; (b) Au L3-edge XANES of Au foil and Pd7Au3 ANs; (c) Adsorption model and adsorption strength of 4-CP and phenol on different Pd-Au ANs electrodes; (d) EHDC performance of pure Pd NPs and Pd-Au ANs electrodes. (e) Mass activity of PdxAuy ANs electrodes [43]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier."
Fig 18
(a) An illustrative schematic depicting the process of surface functionalization; (b) Schematic illustration of favorable contribution of amine decoration during EHDC process; (c) Mass and specific activities of Pd/amine and control samples [80]; Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (d) The increased EHDC activity of Pd/C-PEG through the introduction of PEG to increase the hydrophilicity of the Pd/C electrode; (e) Diagram illustrating the distinct environments of Pd/C and Pd/C-PEG [81]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society."
Table 1
Summary of representative EHDC catalyst in recent years."
| Catalyst | CAHs | EHDC efficiency | kap (min−1) | Mass Activity | CE (%) | TOF (h−1) | Reference |
| C-Pd | 2, 4-DCP | 91.44% | 0.118 | – | – | – | [ |
| C-Pd | 2, 4-DCP | 66.4% | – | – | 35 | – | [ |
| Pd/MWCNTs-B | 4-CP | 100% | 0.0971 | – | 54 | – | [ |
| Pd/MWCNTs-E | 4-CP | 60% | – | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/MWCNTs-H | 4-CP | 29% | – | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/PCN-08 | 4-CP | 85% | 0.039 | – | 17.7 | 22.8 | [ |
| P-Pd@MX–CC | DCF | 94.6 ± 0.1% | 0.39 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/Ni foam electrode | 4-MCB | 94.6% | 0.11 | – | 24.6 | – | [ |
| Pd/foam-Ni | 4-CP | 100% | 0.04733 | – | 24 | – | [ |
| Pd-NiMOF–Ni | 2, 4-D | 99.8% | – | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd-NiRu-MOF–NF | 2-CP | 100% | 0.0731 | – | 14.2 | – | [ |
| Pd@CoFeV-LDH–NF | 2, 4-DCP | 95.46% | 0.023 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/NixAl100−x-LDH-OHV) | 2, 4-DCP | – | – | 6.54 min−1·g−1 | 10.6 | – | [ |
| NiFeP-Pd stems | 4-CP | 98.8% | 0.044 | 446.01 min−1·g−1 | 16 | – | [ |
| Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | 0.0362 | – | 60 | – | [ |
| Pd/Fe-NiO/NF | 2, 4-D | 100% | – | 0.76 min−1·g−1 | 4.09 | – | [ |
| Pd-Co3O4/Ni foam electrode | 2, 4-D | 94.2% | – | – | 12.1 | – | [ |
| TiN-Pd | 2, 4-DCP | 96.4% | 0.0146 | – | 52 | 1116 | [ |
| Pd/Co-MNSs/Ni foam | CAP | ~97% | 0.11 | – | – | – | [ |
| C-Ag32Pd68 | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | – | 2.58 min−1·g−1 | ~32% | – | [ |
| Pd7Au3 ANs | 4-CP | 98.35% | 0.017 | – | 14% | – | [ |
| Pd/amine | 2, 4-DCP | 89.3% | – | 2.32 min−1·g−1 | – | – | [ |
| Pd/C-PEG25 | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | 0.004 | 2.13 min−1·g−1 | 11.7% | – | [ |
| Pd Cube-S | 2-CP | 80% | 0.00458 | – | 20.4% | 4.32 | [ |
| N/G-430-Pd | 2, 4-DCP | 76.45% | – | 0.28 min−1·g−1 | ＜28% | – | [ |
| Pd/NCMK-3-200 | 2, 4-DCP | ~80% | – | 3.37 min−1·g−1 | – | 19.8 | [ |
| Pd NPs/NO-C | CAP | 99% | 0.1036 | – | – | 6.72 | [ |
| Pd/PANI-rGO/NF | DCF | 99.3% | 0.028 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam | CAP | 100% | 0.07 | – | 11.82% | – | [ |
| Pd/MXene@Ni-MOF/NF | 2-CP | 100% | 0.065 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/NiCo-LDH/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 94.81% | 0.0164 | 32.80 min−1·g−1 | – | – | [ |
| Pd/Ni2P-Ni foam | 4-CP | 100% | – | – | 22.62% | – | [ |
| NiFeP-Ti3C2Tx | 4-CP | 100% | 0.04 | 446.01 min−1·g−1 | – | – | [ |
| Pd/NiCo2O4/Ni-foam | 2, 4-D | 100% | – | – | 5.2% | – | [ |
| Pd@Co3O4-OV/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 95.4% | 0.034 | – | – | – | [ |
| TiC-Pd/Ni foam | 2, 4-DCBA | 100% | 0.039 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/TiC/Ti | 2, 4-DCBA | 78% | 0.003 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/STO | 2, 4-DCP | 80% | – | 6.38 min−1·g−1 | 33% | – | [ |
| Pd-Mn/Ni foam | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | 0.0357 | 9.58 min−1·g−1 | 29.11% | – | [ |
| Pd/MnO2/Ni foam | 2, 4-DCBA | 100% | 0.049 | 2.83 min−1·g−1 | – | – | [ |
| Pd/MnO2-Ni foam | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | – | 8.29 min−1·g−1 | 23% | – | [ |
| Pd-TiO2 | 2, 4-DCP | 80% | – | – | – | 1.68 | [ |
| Pd-PCN | 2, 4-DCP | 87% | 0.68 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd/P-PCN | 2, 4-DCP | 82.5% | 0.172 | – | – | – | [ |
| PdNi/NPCNs | 4-CP | 100% | 0.023 | – | 25.8% | 9 | [ |
| Pd-Ni/MWCNTs/GF | 4-CP | 100% | 0.162 | – | – | – | [ |
| Cu@Pd/Ti electrode | atrazine | 91.5% | 0.0214 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd-Cu@MXene/CC | DCF | 93.3 ± 0.1% | 0.0057 | – | – | – | [ |
| Pd0.5Fe0.5/graphene | CPs | – | – | – | – | – | [ |
| Co-SG | 2, 4-DCBA | 91.1% | – | – | – | – | [ |
| Ni-WC/NF | 4-CP | 100% | 0.022 | – | 13.9% | – | [ |
| CoPO/GC/NF | 2, 4-D | 84.0% | 0.0087 | – | – | – | [ |
Fig 19
The reported EHDC catalysts."
Fig 20
TEM images of Pd Cube-S (a), Pd Cube-M (b), and Pd Cube-L (c); The calculated values of Pd Cube-S, Pd Cube-M and Pd Cube-L, ECSA (d), TOF (e), mass activity and specific activity (f); (g–h) Long-term electrolysis of Pd Cube-L, demonstrating its morphological changes; (i) EHDC efficiency of Pd Cube-S after 20 continuous runs; (j) EHDC performance of Pd Cube-L over 30 runs [40]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier."
Fig 21
(a) Pd 3d XPS of N/G-430-Pd and control samples; (b) PDOS of the p orbitals of C and N atoms, and the d orbital of Pd; Optimized adsorption models of and the adsorption strength of (c) 2, 4-DCP and (d) P on different electrodes; (e) The EHDC performance of N/G-430-Pd and control samples; (f) Intrinsic EHDC performance of N/G-430-Pd and control samples [34]; Copyright 2020 Royal Society of Chemistry. (g) Pd 3d XPS in Pd/NCMK-3-200 and control samples; (h) Under optimized configurations, the adsorption energy of 2, 4-DCP on Pd and PdO facets for para-C-Cl and ortho-C-Cl positions [3]; Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (i) The preparation routes of Pd NPs/NO-C; (j–k) Adsorption models of CAP molecules on the surface of pure carbon and N, O doped carbon; (l) EHDC performance of CAP with Pd NPs/NO-C and control samples; (m) Corresponding rate constant of Pd NPs/NO-C and control samples [82]. Copyright 2024 Wiley."
Fig 22
(a) Schematic illustration of EHDC process of Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam catalyst; (b–d) SEM analysis of Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam materials; (e) Nyquist diagram of Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam electrodes and control samples; (f) The EHDC of CAP catalyzed by Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam catalyst and control samples; (g) The corresponding first-order representation [53]; Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (h) Diagram of the fabrication procedure for Pd/MXene@Ni-MOF/NF; (i) EHDC performance of Pd/MXene@Ni-MOF/NF electrode in different pH values; (j) The influence of concurrent ions; (k) Cycling test for Pd/MXene@Ni-MOF/NF cathode [84]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier."
Fig 23
(a) Illustration of preparation of Pd/NiCo-LDH/NF catalyst; (b) Pd 3d XPS of Pd/Ni1Co2-LDH/NF-180 electrode and used material; DFT calculation on the adsorption structure and strength of H*, 2, 4-DCP and phenol on Pd/NiCo-LDH (c1, c4, c7); H*, 2, 4-DCP and phenol on Pd; H*, 2, 4-DCP and phenol on NiCo-LDH; (d) CVs of Pd/NiCo-LDH/NF electrodes; (e) Mass activity and kobs of Pd/Ni1Co2-LDH/NF-180 and control samples [41]. Copyright 2023 Elsevier."
Fig 24
(a) The fabrication illustration of Pd/Ni2P-Ni foam electrocatalyst; (b–c) TEM and HRTEM images of Pd/Ni2P-Ni foam electrode; (d) DFT-calculated H2 adsorption strength on the Pd (111), Ni2P (001) and Pd/Ni2P (001) surfaces; (e) Synergistic mechanism illustration of improved CAHs removal activity on Pd/Ni2P-NF [48]; Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (f) The illustration of Pd/NiFeP-Ti3C2Tx/NF preparation; (g) Adsorption capability of Pd and Ni on BZF at Pd/NiFeP-Ti3C2Tx/NF cathode; (h) EHDC performance of Pd/NiFeP-Ti3C2Tx/NF in comparison with the reported catalyst [99]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier."
Fig 25
(a) Illustration of EHDC of 2, 4-D with Pd/NiCo2O4/NF catalyst; (b) LSV analysis of Pd/NiCo2O4/NF electrode and control samples; (c) Pd 3d XPS of Pd/NiCo2O4/NF catalyst; (d) EHDC activity of Pd/NiCo2O4/NF cathode at various applied potentials [85]; Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (e) Synthesis illustration of Pd@Co3O4-OV/NF material; (f) XPS result of Pd 3d of Pd@Co3O4-OV/NF and Pd@Co3O4/NF; (g) DA of Pd@Co3O4-OV/NF and reported electrodes [86]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (h) Path and mechanism diagram of PCCP removal by Pd/Ti4O7/Ti electrode; (i) Removal efficiency of PCCP at Pd/Ti4O7/Ti and Pd/Ti electrodes and the dechlorination performance of the electrodes for different time periods; (j) Removal of PCCP by Pd/Ti4O7/Ti electrodes after seven cycle experiments [100]. Copyright 2025 Elsevier."
Fig 26
(a) Illustration of the EHDC reaction of 2, 4-DCBA catalyzed by a TiC-Pd/Ni foam cathode; (b) Plots of -ln(C/C0) against time for removal of 2, 4-DCBA under different electrodes [87]; Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (c) Schematic of EHDC mechanism for 2, 4-DCBA catalyzed by Pd/TiC/Ti; DFT calculation on adsorption strength of (d1) 2, 4-DCBA on Pd/TiC, (d2) H* on Pd/TiC, (d3) 2, 4-DCBA on Pd/C, and (d4) H* on Pd/C; (e) kobs for EHDC of 2, 4-DCBA using Pd/TiC/Ti and control samples [29]; Copyright 2020 Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Schematically illustration for EHDC of 2, 4-DCP on Pd/C and Pd/STO catalysts [88]. Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society."
Fig 27
(a) Illustration of Pd-Mn/NF electrocatalyst synthesis process; The electrostatic potential distributions of the Pd-NF (b) and the Pd-Mn/NF (c) surfaces; (d) The PDOS of Pd in Pd-NF, and Pd-Mn/NF [89]; Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (e) Schematic illustration of dechlorination of 2, 4-DCBA on Pd/MnO2/Ni foam cathode [25]; Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (f) Diagram of the EHDC mechanism on Pd-containing catalysts; (g) The pivotal role of MnO2 during H* overflow process [15]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier."
Fig 28
(a) The illustration of EHDC of 2, 4-DCP with Pd-TiO2 Schottky heterojunction catalyst; (b) Comparison of Pd 3d XPS spectra for Pd-TiO2 and Pd-C; Side view of the optimized adsorption structures calculated for 2, 4 DCP on (c1) Pd-TiO2, (c2) Pd-C, and P on (c3) Pd-TiO2 and (c4) Pd-C [32]; Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (d) Planar-averaged electron density distinction Δρ(z) for Pd/PCN; (e) TEM image of Pd/PCN; (f) EHDC performances of Pd-PCN and control samples at −0.85 V; (g) The −ln(C/C0) − t plots of Pd-PCN and reference samples [1]; Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (h) The band structure of the P-PCN-X; (i) Adsorption energies of H*, 2, 4-DCP, and phenol on the Pd (111) surface doped with varying electron counts; (j) Schematical of the correlation between EHDC activity and electron content on Pd; (k) The EHDC performance for Pd-PCN and control samples [62]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier."
Fig 29
(a) A diagram illustrating the preparation of PdNi/NPCNs; (b) Profiles of 4-CP removal on PdNi/NPCNs electrode and control samples [2]; Copyright 2022 Elsevier. (c) The illustration of EHDC of 4-CP with Pd-Ni/MWCNTs/GF catalyst; (d) Reduction diagrams of 4-CP on Pd-Ni/MWCNTs/GF catalyst [90]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier."
Fig 30
(a) Diagram of Cu@Pd/Ti cathode fabrication; (b) Dechlorination of atrazine on Cu@Pd/Ti and control electrodes [91]; Copyright 2015 Elsevier. (c) Pd 3d XPS of Pd@MX/CC and Pd-Cu@MX/CC catalysts; (d) The densities of states of the Pd-Cu@MXene electrode [92]; Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (e) DFT calculation of free energy of DCF, 2-APA, and H* on Pd-Cu@MXene electrode. (f) Illustration of photoreduction preparation for graphene cathodes modified by metal (Pd, Fe, and Pd-Fe) NPs; (g–h) XPS spectra of Pd 3d and Fe 2p for Pd1.0/graphene and Pd0.5Fe0.5/graphene electrodes, respectively [93]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier."
Fig 31
(a) Synthesis procedure of Co-SG electrode; (b) TOC changes and elimination rate during EHDC reaction [94]; Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (c) Preparation schematic of the Ni-WC/NF electrode; (d) Dechlorination activity of Ni-WC/NF and control electrodes; (e) EHDC performance and CE values of Ni-WC/NF and other electrodes [33]; Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (f) Schematic illustration of CoPO/GC/NF preparation; (g) Plot of product distribution, PA yield, and removal efficiency of 2, 4-D of CoPO/NF(450) and control samples; (h) The illustration of EHDC of 2, 4-D with CoPO/NF catalyst [95]. Copyright 2020 Springer."
Fig 32
(a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis route for Cu1/SiO2; (b) CV curves of the SiO2 and Cu1/SiO2 catalysts in a 0.067 M PBS without adding CAP; (c) Kinetics plots of hydrogen desorption peak position versus scan rates of the SiO2, Cu1/SiO2, andCu1/CN catalysts; (d) Schematic depiction of surface hydroxyls-mediated hydrogen spillover on the Cu1/SiO2; (e) Conversion efficiency of CAP on various catalysts after 3 h electrolysis (f) Corresponding CAP dechlorination ratio of (e); (g) Faradaic efficiency during the CAP reduction process [102]. Copyright 2025 Wiley."
Table 2
Comparison of the performance of EHDC for representative CAHs."
| Catalyst | CAHs | EHDC efficiency | Reference |
| NiFeP-Ti3C2Tx | 4-CP | 100% | [ |
| Ni-WC/NF | 4-CP | 100% | [ |
| NiFeP-Pd stems | 4-CP | 98.8% | [ |
| Pd/MXene@Ni-MOF/NF | 2-CP | 100% | [ |
| Pd-NiRu-MOF/NF | 2-CP | 100% | [ |
| Pd@CoFeV-LDH/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 95.46% | [ |
| Pd/Ni-Cu-P/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 100% | [ |
| Pd/NiCo-LDH/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 94.81% | [ |
| TiN-Pd | 2, 4-DCP | 96.4% | [ |
| Pd/NCMK-3-200 | 2, 4-DCP | ~80% | [ |
| Pd@Co3O4-OV/NF | 2, 4-DCP | 95.4% | [ |
| Pd/MnO2/Ni foam | 2, 4, 6-TCP | 92.58% | [ |
| Ru/PPy/foam Ni | Pentachlorophenol (PCP) | 88% | [ |
| Pd-Co3O4/Ni foam electrode | 2, 4-D | 94.2% | [ |
| Pd-NiMOF/Ni | 2, 4-D | 99.8% | [ |
| Pd/NiCo2O4/Ni-foam | 2, 4-D | 100% | [ |
| Pd/PANI-rGO/NF | DCF | 99.3% | [ |
| Pd-Cu@MXene/CC | DCF | 93.3 ± 0.1% | [ |
| Pd NPs/NO-C | CAP | 99% | [ |
| Pd/NiCo-MOF/Nickel foam | CAP | 100% | [ |
| TiC-Pd/Ni foam | 2, 4-DCBA | 100% | [ |
| Pd/MnO2/Ni foam | 2, 4-DCBA | 100% | [ |
| 0Pd/TiC/Ti | 2, 4-DCBA | 78% | [ |
| Co-SG | 2, 4-DCBA | 91.1% | [ |
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